This article is the first in a four-part series that explores the theological foundations within Islam that contribute to antisemitism, with each part focusing on a different key concept.
By Dr. Tim Orr
This article is the first in a four-part series that explores the theological foundations within Islam that contribute to antisemitism, with each part focusing on a different key concept. By “theological constructs of Islamic antisemitism,” I mean the religious ideas, doctrines, and interpretations within Islamic thought that have been used to justify or explain hostility toward Jews. These constructs are deeply embedded in Islamic theology and serve as the basis for viewing Jews not only as religious dissenters but also as people who have consciously rejected divine truth. This series will analyze these theological components, beginning with the concept of fitra, the innate human disposition toward recognizing and worshiping Allah, which plays a crucial role in shaping how Jews are perceived in Islamic thought. Subsequent articles will explore other doctrinal elements that contribute to this hostility, such as the Qur'anic punishment narratives, prophetic rejection's role, and Islamic eschatology's influence.
Understanding these theological constructs is key to grasping the complex roots of Islamic antisemitism, which goes beyond mere political or social disagreement and touches upon the core of Islamic beliefs about human nature, divine revelation, and religious truth.
To illustrate the concept of fitra, the Qur'an frequently refers to the story of Adam, the first human created with an innate disposition to worship and obey Allah. According to Islamic tradition, Adam was initially guided by his fitra, living in perfect harmony with God's will. However, when Adam was deceived by Satan and disobeyed God, his deviation from this pure state set the stage for humanity's ongoing struggle to remain true to their fitra in the face of external temptations. This story shows how deviation from fitra is viewed as a failure to follow God's commands and a deeper betrayal of one's essential nature.
This narrative is a powerful illustration of the concept of fitra and its impact on Islamic theology. Just as Adam strayed from his original state of purity and submission, so too can individuals—both Muslims and non-Muslims—fall away from their innate inclination to worship Allah. However, Muslims who actively cultivate taqwa, or God-consciousness, are believed to return to or maintain their fitra, while unbelievers are seen as continuing in their rebellion against God. In the case of Jews, Islamic tradition often views their rejection of Muhammad's message as a deliberate and conscious deviation from their original fitra, positioning them as spiritually corrupt. This view reinforces the idea that some groups, like the Jews, have knowingly turned away from the truth that fitra is meant to guide them toward.
The Qur’an closely associates fitra with taqwa, often translated as God-consciousness. Taqwa serves as the practical outworking of fitra, guiding believers' moral and ethical decisions. As Fazlur Rahman (1980) notes, taqwa functions as a moral compass that aligns one's actions with Allah's will, promoting justice and righteousness while discouraging sin. Believers, therefore, are those who maintain their fitra by practicing taqwa. At the same time, unbelievers, including Jews, are depicted as having deviated from their innate disposition, marked by spiritual blindness, arrogance, and rebellion (Marshall, 2004). This distinction creates a clear theological divide between those in harmony with their natural state and those who have strayed from it.
A story from Islamic tradition illustrates this idea of taqwa in action. One day, a pious Muslim merchant faced an opportunity to cheat his customer by selling defective goods. In that moment, his conscience, grounded in taqwa, reminded him of his responsibility before Allah. Choosing to act with integrity, he returned the money to the customer and confessed the defect in the product. This simple act of moral uprightness reflects his fitra, aligning his behavior with his natural inclination toward goodness. This story highlights how fitra and taqwa work together to guide the believer's actions in everyday life, reinforcing the idea that true believers maintain their fitra by living morally righteous lives.
Conversely, unbelievers, including Jews, are depicted as having deviated from their fitra, morally deficient, spiritually blind, arrogant, rebellious, and ignorant. Their refusal to accept divine guidance is not just a matter of differing beliefs but a conscious rejection of their natural state and purpose (Marshall, 2004). A Qur’anic story about the Israelites’ disobedience to Moses further illustrates this division. After being freed from slavery in Egypt, the Israelites, instead of remaining grateful and obedient to God’s command, repeatedly fell into idolatry and rebellion. In the Qur'anic account, this behavior is not just disobedience but a betrayal of their original fitra and a rejection of divine truth. This portrayal emphasizes that rejecting fitra is seen as a deliberate act of defiance against God.
Within Islamic theology, Jews are often viewed as people who, despite being born with the fitra to recognize and worship Allah, have consciously rejected this by not accepting Muhammad’s prophethood and the Qur’an as the final revelation. This perceived deviation from their innate disposition positions Jews as a group that knowingly resists divine truth and guidance. From an Islamic perspective, the adherence of Jews to Judaism rather than accepting Islam is seen as a deliberate and obstinate rejection of the true faith they are believed to be naturally inclined to follow according to their fitra.
An illustrative story from Islamic history involves Muhammad's interactions with Jewish tribes in Medina. Upon arriving in the city, Muhammad initially hoped to build alliances with the Jewish communities, seeing them as fellow monotheists who shared in the Abrahamic tradition. However, when many of the Jewish leaders rejected his message and refused to recognize him as a prophet, Islamic tradition interpreted their rejection as more than just political disagreement—it is viewed as a theological rebellion against their fitra. This event serves as a foundational moment in shaping Islamic views of Jews, marking them as a community that knowingly turned away from their natural inclination toward the truth. This depiction of Jews as willfully rejecting their fitra sets a theological basis for later hostility toward them.
This perceived rejection of fitra has contributed to a theological justification for hostility toward Jews. The Qur’an’s portrayal of Jews as having repeatedly strayed from the path of truth and righteousness (Qur’an 2:61, 5:12-13) further solidifies this perspective. The repeated emphasis on their moral and spiritual failures is framed as evidence of their deviation from their innate nature, which, in turn, justifies their negative portrayal within Islamic thought.
Adam Dobbs, in his master’s thesis, What Does It Mean to Be Human?, provides a critical lens through which the concept of fitra can be analyzed, particularly in its contribution to Islamic antisemitism. He points out that the Qur’an presents a dualistic view of human nature, emphasizing both a “high” and “low” anthropology. While humans are created with the potential for honor and divine guidance, they are also described as inherently weak and prone to sin. The rejection of divine guidance, especially by those seen as straying from their fitra, reinforces a theological narrative where unbelievers, including Jews, are depicted as deserving of divine punishment. This dualistic view creates a tension where Jews are not merely seen as unbelievers but as individuals who have rejected their natural, God-given inclination.
One example of this theological framing is found in the Qur’anic story of the Sabbath-breaking Israelites (Qur’an 2:65). According to the narrative, a group of Jews repeatedly violated the Sabbath despite divine warnings. Their disobedience is portrayed as a deliberate rejection of God's command, leading to their punishment of being transformed into apes. The harshness of this punishment reflects the gravity of their deviation from their natural fitra, and this story has often been interpreted in Islamic thought as emblematic of Jewish defiance and rebellion against divine truth. This narrative reinforces the notion that rejecting fitra has serious theological consequences.
Dobbs further argues that this portrayal not only justifies the harsh treatment of unbelievers but also solidifies a worldview in which Jews are seen as betraying their inherent fitra. By positioning Jews as opponents of divine truth, Islamic theology creates a framework in which hostility toward them becomes theologically justified. The consistent depiction of unbelievers as deviants from fitra and the subsequent divine punishment serve as foundational elements that later contribute to antisemitic attitudes in Islamic thought. This theological foundation suggests that the opposition between Jews and Muslims is not merely about religious differences but is rooted in a deeper, divinely mandated conflict.
The doctrine of fitra in Islamic theology provides a framework for understanding the roots of Islamic antisemitism. By emphasizing the natural inclination of all humans toward recognizing and worshiping Allah, fitra creates a theological expectation that all people should inherently accept the truth of Islam. When groups like the Jews reject this truth, they are seen as consciously deviating from their natural state, reinforcing a narrative of spiritual deficiency and moral corruption.
This theological framework not only justifies hostility toward Jews but also solidifies their portrayal as enemies of divine truth within Islamic thought. Through stories like the Sabbath-breaking Israelites and the rejection of Muhammad by Jewish tribes in Medina, Islamic theology constructs a narrative in which Jews are depicted as deliberately resisting their fitra, leading to the justification of divine punishment and theological hostility. This portrayal continues to influence attitudes toward Jews in certain Islamic traditions, contributing to the persistence of antisemitism within those contexts. By framing this hostility in theological terms, it becomes entrenched as part of the broader worldview within Islamic thought.
Tim Orr is an Evangelical minister, conference speaker, and interfaith consultant with over 30 years of experience in cross-cultural ministry. He holds six degrees, including a master’s in Islamic studies from the Islamic College in London. Tim taught Religious Studies for 15 years at Indiana University Columbus and is now a Congregations and Polarization Project research associate at the Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University Indianapolis. He has spoken at universities, including Oxford, and mosques throughout the U.K. His research focuses on American Evangelicalism, Islamic antisemitism, and Islamic feminism, and he has published widely, including three books.
The ideas in this article are mine, but AI assisted in writing it.