... how and why Muhammad created a new religion, examining his initial struggles in Mecca, the pivotal migration to Medina, the adaptation and reinterpretation of revelations, the unification of Arabian tribes under a single banner, and the role of military conquests.
By Dr. Tim Orr
Muhammad’s transformation from a marginalized preacher in Mecca to the founder of a major world religion is a testament to his strategic ingenuity and adaptability. Far from merely continuing pre-existing traditions, Islam emerged as a distinct and new religious framework, crafted through Muhammad’s synthesis of existing religious narratives, strategic political maneuvers, and military successes. This argument delves into the various facets of how and why Muhammad created a new religion, examining his initial struggles in Mecca, the pivotal migration to Medina, the adaptation and reinterpretation of revelations, the unification of Arabian tribes under a single banner, and the role of military conquests. By understanding these elements, we can see how Muhammad's actions and decisions led to the birth of a new and distinct religious identity in Islam.
Muhammad faced significant opposition and persecution in Mecca in the early years of his prophetic career (610-622 AD). His message, which emphasized monotheism and social justice, resonated with only a small group of followers, primarily his family and close associates (Donner, 2010). The lack of widespread acceptance in Mecca, combined with the socio-political dynamics of the city, positioned Muhammad as a marginalized figure. This period, however, was crucial in shaping his early theological positions and establishing the foundation for his later political strategies.
Muhammad’s early messages in Mecca, preserved in the Quranic chapters from this period, focused heavily on the oneness of God (tawhid) and the moral responsibility of individuals (Peters, 1994). He preached against idolatry in Meccan society and called for social reforms, emphasizing the need to care for the poor and marginalized. Despite these noble ideals, the socio-economic elite of Mecca, who benefited from the existing religious and social order, saw Muhammad’s message as a direct threat to their power and influence (Watt, 1953). This opposition led to the persecution of Muhammad and his followers, pushing them to seek refuge and support elsewhere.
Muhammad's opposition in Mecca can also be attributed to his challenge to the religious status quo. Mecca was a major center of commerce and pilgrimage, with the Kaaba as a sacred site for various Arabian tribes. The Quraysh, the dominant tribe in Mecca, had a vested interest in maintaining the polytheistic practices that attracted pilgrims and generated significant revenue (Donner, 2010). Muhammad’s call for monotheism and the rejection of idol worship threatened Meccan society's economic and social fabric. His critique of the moral corruption and social injustices perpetuated by the elite further alienated him from the powerful factions in Mecca.
The turning point in Muhammad’s mission came with the migration to Medina in 622 AD, known as the Hijrah. This migration was a flight from persecution and a strategic relocation that allowed Muhammad to gain political power. Medina, rife with tribal conflicts, presented an opportunity for Muhammad to position himself as a unifying leader (Peters, 1994). This shift from a purely religious leader to a political figure marked the beginning of Muhammad’s transformation of his movement into a socio-political entity.
In Medina, Muhammad was able to craft a new societal model. The Constitution of Medina, a document attributed to him, established the guidelines for a multi-tribal confederation under his leadership. This document not only addressed the rights and responsibilities of the various tribes and communities but also positioned Muhammad as the religious and political central authority (Lecker, 2004). This new role allowed him to integrate his religious teachings with political governance, creating a cohesive community bound by faith and mutual obligations.
The Constitution of Medina is significant because it established the foundational principles for the new Islamic state. It delineated the relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims, particularly the Jewish tribes of Medina, and set forth the terms of cooperation and defense. By positioning himself as the arbiter of disputes and the confederation's leader, Muhammad consolidated his authority and implemented his vision of a unified, just society (Hamidullah, 1975). The Constitution also emphasized the concept of ummah, the community of believers, which transcended tribal affiliations and created a sense of collective identity and purpose among the followers of Islam.
With his newfound political power in Medina, the nature of Muhammad’s revelations changed significantly. The focus of his messages shifted from purely religious teachings to political and societal directives. This is evident in the Medinan surahs of the Quran, which emphasize the importance of obedience to Muhammad, political governance, and the conduct of jihad (Watt, 1956). This adaptation of revelations to suit the changing context of his leadership indicates a pragmatic approach to consolidating his authority and expanding his influence.
Bannister argues that the Quran’s composition reflects its origin in oral tradition, further emphasizing Muhammad’s pragmatic adaptation. Approximately 25% of the Quran consists of retellings of biblical stories and Jewish and Christian legends, reinterpreted to fit Muhammad’s context (Rippin, 2005). These stories were familiar to the people of Arabia through oral tradition, making the new religion more relatable and acceptable. Bannister’s research shows that the Quran contains numerous formulaic phrases and repeated narratives, hallmarks of oral tradition, suggesting that Muhammad drew on existing stories and adapted them for his purposes (Bannister, 2016).
The Quran’s structure and composition also reveal the adaptive nature of Muhammad’s message. For instance, the varying accounts of the same events, such as Moses's stories or Mary's annunciation, reflect an oral storytelling tradition where stories are tailored to different audiences and contexts (Bannister, 2016). This flexibility allowed Muhammad to address his followers' immediate concerns and questions, reinforcing his authority and the relevance of his message.
In his book "Biblical Reflexes," Mark Durie elaborates on the strategic use of jihad in the Quran. Durie argues that jihad was not merely a spiritual struggle but a concrete directive for military action aimed at both defending and expanding the Islamic community. He explains that the Quranic revelations about jihad evolved to meet the political and military needs of the Muslim community, legitimizing warfare under the banner of religious duty (Durie, 2015). This transformation from defensive to offensive jihad underpinned the rapid territorial expansion of Islam and demonstrated Muhammad’s strategic insight as a military leader.
One of Muhammad’s significant achievements was the unification of the fractious Arabian tribes. Through strategic marriages, alliances, and military campaigns, he managed to bring together the diverse and often warring tribes under the banner of Islam (Esposito, 1998). This unification was a religious endeavor and a political strategy that leveraged religious identity to achieve socio-political cohesion. The promise of wealth and social stability attracted more followers, further solidifying Muhammad’s power base.
The strategic marriages that Muhammad contracted, such as his marriage to Aisha, the daughter of his close companion Abu Bakr, and his marriage to Hafsa, the daughter of Umar, strengthened his political alliances. These marriages were not merely personal unions but calculated moves to bind powerful families to his cause (Lings, 1983). Additionally, the policy of granting amnesty and integrating former adversaries, such as the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, into the Muslim community helped to pacify opposition and expand his influence.
The unification of the Arabian tribes under Islam was a significant achievement in a region characterized by tribalism and frequent inter-tribal conflicts. By promoting a sense of collective identity and purpose through the concept of ummah, Muhammad could transcend traditional tribal boundaries and foster a sense of unity and solidarity among his followers (Lings, 1983). This unification was further reinforced by establishing communal rituals and practices, such as the daily prayers and the pilgrimage to Mecca, which bind the community together and create a shared religious identity.
Muhammad’s creation of a new religion involved strategically synthesizing existing religious traditions. Approximately 25% of the Quran includes retellings of biblical stories and Jewish and Christian legends (Rippin, 2005). These stories, familiar to the people of Arabia through oral tradition, were reinterpreted and integrated into the Quran, making the new religion more relatable and acceptable. This incorporation of elements from Zoroastrianism and other local traditions further enriched the religious tapestry of Islam, reflecting the diverse religious landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia.
The Quranic narratives often reframe biblical and apocryphal stories to emphasize themes relevant to Muhammad’s context. For example, the story of Joseph, known as Yusuf in the Quran, emphasizes patience and divine providence, resonating with Muhammad’s own experiences of hardship and eventual triumph (Sells, 1999). Similarly, the Quranic account of Jesus (Isa) portrays him as a revered prophet, aligning with the Islamic view of prophethood while distinguishing Islam from Christianity (Rippin, 2005). This selective adaptation and reinterpretation of existing religious traditions helped establish a distinct Islamic identity.
In addition to biblical narratives, the Quran incorporates elements from Zoroastrian and Arabian pagan traditions. For instance, the concept of a final judgment and resurrection, central to Zoroastrian eschatology, is echoed in the Quran’s descriptions of the Day of Judgment (Fisher, 2016). Furthermore, pre-Islamic Arabian practices, such as the veneration of the Kaaba and the annual pilgrimage, were retained and reinterpreted within an Islamic framework, preserving continuity with the past while imbuing these practices with new religious significance (Waines, 2003). This synthesis of traditions facilitated the acceptance of Islam among the diverse populations of Arabia and provided a rich and multifaceted religious heritage for the new Muslim community.
The new religious framework provided by Muhammad offered a distinctive identity for his followers, setting them apart from the polytheistic and diverse religious practices of pre-Islamic Arabia. Islam emphasized strict monotheism, communal prayer, and adherence to moral and ethical guidelines (Waines, 2003). However, this identity changed over time. Early revelations referred to Jews and Christians as "People of the Book," recognizing their scriptures and offering a form of respect and shared monotheistic heritage. As Muhammad faced increased opposition, particularly from Jewish tribes, his stance grew more critical and antagonistic.
Early verses of the Quran express a relatively positive view of Jews and Christians, recognizing their scriptures and shared monotheistic beliefs. However, as conflicts with Jewish tribes in Medina intensified, Muhammad's revelations began to reflect growing animosity. Later verses criticize Jews and Christians for perceived transgressions and theological errors, framing them as adversaries of the Muslim community (Rippin, 2005). This shift in tone and content reveals how Muhammad's evolving political and social circumstances influenced the religious identity of his followers.
The military successes of Muhammad and his followers played a crucial role in legitimizing his claims and attracting more adherents. Victories such as the Battle of Badr and the conquest of Mecca were seen as signs of divine favor, bolstering Muhammad’s authority and the appeal of Islam (Rodinson, 1971). The rapid expansion of the Islamic state through subsequent military campaigns ensured the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, establishing it as a dominant force in the region.
Muhammad’s military strategies were characterized by both tactical brilliance and pragmatic diplomacy. The Battle of Badr, for instance, was not only a significant military victory but also a psychological triumph that boosted the morale of his followers (Watt, 1956). The eventual conquest of Mecca, achieved with minimal bloodshed, demonstrated Muhammad’s capacity for magnanimity and strategic foresight. He solidified his leadership and expanded his support base by integrating his former enemies into the Muslim community and offering clemency (Lings, 1983).
A critical evaluation of Muhammad's military expansion must address the concept of dhimmitude, which refers to the status of non-Muslims under Islamic rule. Dhimmis, or protected people, were non-Muslims who lived under Muslim sovereignty and were subject to specific regulations and taxes in exchange for protection and limited autonomy. This system institutionalized a second-class status for Jews and Christians, imposing various social and legal restrictions upon them (Bat Ye'or, 1985).
Under dhimmitude, Jews and Christians had to pay the jizya, a poll tax, and adhere to regulations that limited their religious and social freedoms. They were prohibited from building new places of worship, proselytizing, and holding certain public offices. The jizya served as a tangible reminder of their subjugation and reinforced the superiority of the Muslim community (Durie, 2015). The concept of dhimmitude reveals the underlying inequities and discriminatory practices embedded in early Islamic governance, contrasting sharply with the Christian principle of equality before God.
In contrast to Muhammad’s politically and militarily driven approach, Christianity spread primarily through non-violent means, focusing on the marginalized and oppressed. The early Christian movement grew despite significant persecution, highlighting a different kind of power and appeal (Stark, 1996). The early Christians’ reliance on non-violent evangelism and their emphasis on love and service provided a stark contrast to the expansionist and militant strategies employed in the early years of Islam.
Given its initial lack of political and military power, Christianity's growth was surprising. Early Christians were often persecuted and marginalized, yet their commitment to non-violence, social justice, and community service attracted followers across the Roman Empire. The transformative power of Christian teachings, centered on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, offered a compelling alternative to the dominant religious and cultural paradigms (Stark, 1996). This non-violent spread of Christianity stands in stark contrast to the aggressive expansion of early Islam, underscoring the fundamental differences in their approaches to growth and influence.
Christianity's message of love, forgiveness, and the inherent worth of every individual offers a more profound and humane vision than the hierarchical and often coercive structures seen in early Islamic governance. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity, the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ, and the sacrificial love demonstrated through the crucifixion and resurrection present a radically different understanding of God's nature and His relationship with humanity.
The teachings of Jesus Christ emphasize the transformative power of love and forgiveness. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus taught to love one's enemies, turn the other cheek, and bless those who persecute you (Matthew 5:44). This message of radical love and forgiveness stands in stark contrast to the aggressive and often retributive approach found in early Islamic expansion. The non-violent resistance of early Christians, who willingly faced persecution and martyrdom rather than renounce their faith, highlights the differences in Christianity's ethical and moral teachings.
Moreover, the Christian concept of salvation by grace through faith, as opposed to the works-based salvation in Islam, underscores the distinctiveness of Christian theology. Christianity teaches that salvation is a gift from God, freely given through the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ, and not something that can be earned through human efforts (Ephesians 2:8-9). This doctrine of grace offers a profound assurance of God's love and mercy, contrasting with the conditional and often uncertain path to salvation in Islam.
Muhammad’s creation of Islam was a complex and multifaceted process that involved the synthesis of existing religious traditions, strategic political maneuvers, and military successes. His ability to adapt his message and unify diverse tribes under a new religious identity was instrumental in the rapid spread and establishment of Islam. This transformation from a persecuted preacher to the founder of a major world religion underscores the pragmatic and strategic dimensions of Muhammad’s leadership.
The ideas in this blog are mine, but AI was used to help create the content.