Bernard Lewis's Evolution of Thought on Islamic Antisemitism

By Dr. Tim Orr

Bernard Lewis, one of the most influential historians of Islam and the Middle East, offered a comprehensive and evolving analysis of Islamic antisemitism throughout his career. His scholarship reflects a deep engagement with the historical, theological, and political dimensions of this phenomenon, revealing a progression from a nuanced understanding of traditional Islamic attitudes towards Jews to an examination of the impact of modern political and ideological currents on antisemitic sentiments within the Muslim world. However, Lewis's work has also been criticized, particularly concerning his views on the Islamic world, which some argue are influenced by an Orientalist perspective.

Clarification of Terminology and Concepts

Before delving into Lewis's evolution of thought, it is important to clarify key terms used throughout the discussion:

Antisemitism: This term traditionally refers to hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. In the context of Islamic societies, antisemitism can encompass religious, social, and, in modern times, political dimensions, including both historical prejudices and contemporary forms of anti-Jewish sentiment.
Dhimmitude: A concept derived from the Arabic term "dhimmi," dhimmis were non-Muslims living under Islamic rule who were granted protection and certain rights in exchange for acknowledging Islam's supremacy and paying a special tax called the jizya. This status often involved social and legal restrictions designed to emphasize the dhimmis' subordinate position in society.
Radical Islamism: An ideological movement within Islam that seeks to return to what its adherents believe are the fundamental principles of the faith, often characterized by a strict and literal interpretation of Islamic texts. Radical Islamism can be associated with extremist views and actions, including the adoption of antisemitic rhetoric and the use of violence to achieve political and religious goals.

Traditional Islamic Attitudes Toward Jews

In his earlier work, Lewis sought to delineate the nature of antisemitism in the Islamic world, differentiating it from the more extreme forms found in Christian Europe. In The Jews of Islam (1984), he detailed how Jews were treated as "People of the Book" within the Islamic legal and social framework, known as dhimmitude. This status granted them a protected but subordinate position in Muslim societies. They were required to pay the jizya tax, a tribute that allowed them to practice their religion and maintain communal autonomy under Islamic rule.

Lewis emphasized that, unlike in Christian Europe, where antisemitism often manifested as a racial and existential hatred, Islamic attitudes towards Jews were primarily religious and social. Jews, along with Christians, were seen as followers of earlier revelations who had strayed from the true path of Islam. This religious divergence placed them in a position of inferiority, but it did not amount to an intrinsic hatred or the kind of violent persecution characteristic of medieval European antisemitism.

In The Jews of Islam, Lewis showed that Islamic society as a whole has little of the deep-rooted emotional hostility to the Jew that one finds in Christendom (Lewis, 1984). This quote encapsulates his argument that while Jews in Islamic societies were discriminated against, this discrimination did not have the same deep-seated theological animosity found in Christianity.

Further Analysis of Traditional Islamic Sources

To strengthen his argument, Lewis examined traditional Islamic texts and doctrines to highlight the complexity of Muslim attitudes toward Jews. He referenced specific Qur'anic verses and Hadith that played a role in shaping Islamic views. For instance, the Qur'an contains both positive and negative references to Jews. Verses such as Surah Al-Baqarah 2:62 praise Jews who believe in God and the Last Day, indicating a recognition of their monotheistic faith. Conversely, other verses, such as Surah Al-Ma'idah 5:82, describe Jews as being among the strongest in enmity toward the believers.

Lewis also pointed to historical interpretations and the application of these texts throughout Islamic history. The Constitution of Medina, for example, established a form of coexistence between Muslims and Jewish tribes, recognizing their religious and communal autonomy. However, conflicts such as the Battle of Khaybar and the events involving the Banu Qurayza tribe, who were accused of betraying Muhammad, influenced subsequent Muslim attitudes toward Jews and have been used in later periods to justify hostile actions against Jewish communities.

The Hadith literature, which records the sayings and actions of Muhammad, also contains narratives that have been interpreted in ways that shape Muslim-Jewish relations. For example, a well-known hadith states, "The Day of Judgement will not come about until Muslims fight the Jews when the Jew hides behind stones and trees" (Sahih Muslim, Book 41, Hadith 6985). Some modern Islamist groups have cited such texts to support antisemitic ideologies.

The Introduction of European Antisemitism

As Lewis's scholarship evolved, he turned his attention to the impact of European colonialism and the introduction of Western antisemitic ideologies into the Islamic world. In Semites and Antisemites (1986), Lewis explored how the 19th and early 20th centuries marked a significant shift in Muslim-Jewish relations. The arrival of European powers in the Middle East brought with it not only new political dynamics but also the dissemination of European antisemitic doctrines.

Lewis illustrated this influence with the case of "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion," a fabricated document that purported to expose a Jewish conspiracy for world domination. First published in Russia in the early 20th century, this text became widely circulated in the Arab world, where it was translated into Arabic and embraced by various political and religious leaders. Lewis noted that the spread of such materials introduced a new and more sinister dimension to Islamic antisemitism, blending European conspiracy theories with existing Islamic prejudices.

In "Semites and Antisemites," Lewis believed that the diffusion of modern antisemitism in the Islamic world is thus largely due to the impact of European ideas and the transfer of the religious and racial stereotypes of Christendom to an Islamic milieu (Lewis, 1986). This quote underscores his view that European antisemitism significantly influenced the Islamic world, altering pre-existing attitudes toward Jews.

Further Exploration of the Impact of European Antisemitism

Lewis acknowledged that European antisemitic ideologies were not simply adopted wholesale by the Islamic world but were adapted to fit the local context. He examined how certain Arab nationalist and Islamist leaders selectively appropriated these ideas to further their political and ideological agendas. For example, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, utilized European antisemitic tropes to promote anti-Zionist and anti-Jewish sentiment among their followers.

Lewis pointed out that the Protocols of the Elders of Zion were circulated and adapted to the Islamic context. Leaders and propagandists in the Middle East reinterpreted the document's themes of Jewish conspiracy and global domination to align with Islamic narratives of historical conflict between Muslims and Jews. This adaptation process involved framing Jews as enemies of Islam and agents of Western imperialism, thus giving a religious and cultural dimension to the antisemitic conspiracy theories imported from Europe.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict and the Radicalization of Antisemitism

A critical turning point in Lewis's examination of Islamic antisemitism was his analysis of the Arab-Israeli conflict and its ramifications for Muslim-Jewish relations. In Islam in History (1993) and subsequent writings, Lewis traced how the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent wars between Israel and its Arab neighbors intensified antisemitic sentiments in the Muslim world.

Lewis observed that the establishment of Israel was perceived by many in the Arab world as a profound injustice and a symbol of Western imperialism. The defeat of Arab armies in the 1948 war and the subsequent displacement of Palestinian Arabs led to a deep sense of humiliation and anger, which was often directed not only against the state of Israel but also against Jews more broadly. A sense of betrayal fueled this hatred, as many Arabs believed that the establishment of a Jewish state in the heart of the Muslim world was part of a larger Western plot to dominate and subjugate them.

In this context, Lewis highlighted how Arab nationalist leaders, such as Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, employed antisemitic rhetoric as a tool to galvanize public support and unify the Arab world against a common enemy. Nasser's propaganda, along with that of other leaders, frequently invoked historical analogies, comparing the Jews to the Crusaders and framing the conflict as a continuation of the struggle between Islam and its historical enemies. This narrative served to legitimize the rejection of Israel's right to exist and to justify the hostility towards Jews within the broader framework of anti-imperialist and anti-colonial resistance.

Lewis noted that this period marked the radicalization of Islamic antisemitism, transforming it from a marginal religious prejudice into a central component of political ideology. The intersection of religious, political, and social factors created a fertile ground for the growth of a more aggressive and dangerous form of antisemitism, which was further intensified by the rise of political Islamism in the latter half of the 20th century.

The Rise of Modern Radical Islamic Antisemitism

In his later works, Lewis addressed the rise of Islamist movements and their role in propagating radical antisemitic ideologies. In The Crisis of Islam (2003), he examined how groups such as Hamas and Hezbollah adopted antisemitic rhetoric and doctrines, using religious texts and historical narratives to justify their hostility towards Jews. These groups not only rejected Israel's existence but also framed their struggle in cosmic terms, portraying it as a battle between Islam and its eternal enemies.

Lewis pointed out that modern Islamist movements often drew upon selective interpretations of Islamic scriptures and traditions to support their antisemitic views. For instance, the Hamas Charter includes references to Qur'anic verses and Hadith that depict Jews as deceitful and treacherous, casting the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in religiously apocalyptic terms. This use of religious texts provided a theological veneer to political and military objectives, making the conflict appear not just as a territorial dispute but an existential struggle ordained by divine mandate.

In "The Crisis of Islam," Bernard Lewis observes that for radical Islamists, antisemitism is an essential and logical element in their efforts to purify Islam and to rejuvenate and broaden the influence of Muslim power (Lewis, 2003). This statement encapsulates his argument that antisemitism in its modern Islamist form is intertwined with a broader ideological agenda of religious and political purification and expansion.

Deeper Exploration of Modern Antisemitism

To enhance his discussion of contemporary Islamic antisemitism, Lewis acknowledged the role of modern technology and globalization in spreading antisemitic narratives. The internet and social media have become powerful tools for disseminating antisemitic propaganda, allowing radical Islamist groups to reach a global audience. Websites, social media platforms, and online forums are used to circulate conspiracy theories, false historical narratives, and hate speech, amplifying the reach and impact of antisemitic ideologies.

Lewis's work also touched upon the impact of globalization on Islamist ideologies. As Muslim communities around the world encounter Western political and cultural influences, some radical groups have adopted antisemitic rhetoric as a means of opposing perceived Western imperialism and cultural encroachment. This has led to a fusion of anti-Zionist sentiment with broader antisemitic conspiracy theories, portraying Jews not only as the enemies of Islam but also as agents of Western domination.

Historical Narratives and Political Instrumentalization

Throughout his analysis, Lewis explored how historical narratives have been instrumentalized to shape contemporary Islamic antisemitism. In What Went Wrong? (2002), he examined how modern ideologues have reinterpreted events from the life of Muhammad and early Islamic history to legitimize hostility towards Jews. One notable example is the battle of Khaybar, where Muhammad and his followers defeated the Jewish tribes of Khaybar in the Arabian Peninsula. This event has been invoked by modern Islamist groups as a symbol of Muslim triumph over Jewish treachery, serving as a rallying cry in the struggle against Israel.

Lewis argued that the selective use of historical narratives has been a powerful tool in constructing an antisemitic ideology that resonates with contemporary audiences. By framing the conflict with Jews as a continuation of Muhammad's struggles, modern Islamist leaders seek to draw a direct line between the past and the present, portraying themselves as the heirs of the Prophet's mission. This appropriation of historical memory provides a sense of legitimacy and continuity to their cause, reinforcing the idea that the struggle against Jews is a fundamental and timeless aspect of the Islamic faith.

Criticisms of Lewis’s Interpretations

While Lewis's analysis of Islamic antisemitism is comprehensive and influential, it has not been without controversy. One of the primary critiques comes from Edward Said, particularly in his seminal work Orientalism (1978). Said argues that Lewis's scholarship represents an Orientalist perspective, which views the Islamic world through a lens of Western superiority and often portrays it in a monolithic and static manner. Said contends that Lewis and other Orientalists tend to emphasize the negative aspects of Islamic histories, such as antisemitism, while downplaying the complexities and diversity within Islamic cultures.

Said criticized Lewis for what he perceived as a tendency to focus on the more negative or problematic aspects of Islamic history, such as antisemitism, and to interpret them in ways that reinforce Western notions of Islamic backwardness or fanaticism. According to Said, this approach overlooks the historical context and the internal dynamics of Islamic societies, reducing them to a series of stereotypes that serve to justify Western domination and intervention.

Addressing Potential Bias in Lewis’s Work

Some critics argue that Lewis’s framing of Islamic antisemitism is influenced by a pro-Western, pro-Israeli stance, particularly given the political context in which he wrote. They suggest that Lewis’s interpretations may sometimes reflect a bias that aligns with Western foreign policy interests, especially in his portrayal of the Arab-Israeli conflict. His critics claim that this perspective could lead to a skewed understanding of Islamic antisemitism, one that potentially overlooks or downplays the role of Western colonialism, Zionism, and regional geopolitics in shaping Muslim-Jewish relations.

Lewis, however, defended his approach, arguing that his scholarship aimed to present an objective analysis based on historical evidence. He contended that recognizing the existence and evolution of Islamic antisemitism was essential for understanding the complexities of contemporary Muslim-Jewish relations and the challenges they pose to peace and coexistence.

Comparative Perspective with Other Scholars

While this paper has focused on Lewis's interpretations, contrasting his views with other scholars on Islamic antisemitism offers a more rounded understanding of the topic. Scholars like Norman Stillman, Bat Ye'or, and Andrew Bostom have provided different perspectives on the historical and theological roots of Islamic antisemitism.

Norman Stillman: In his works on Jewish life under Islam, Stillman provides a more nuanced view of the status of Jews in Islamic societies, emphasizing the complexities and variations across different regions and periods. He acknowledges both the protection afforded to Jews under Islamic rule and the instances of discrimination and violence they faced. Stillman's approach offers a more balanced view, highlighting the diversity of Muslim-Jewish interactions throughout history.
Bat Ye'or: Known for her work on the concept of dhimmitude, Bat Ye'or presents a more critical view of the status of Jews and Christians under Islamic rule. She argues that the dhimmi system institutionalized discrimination and subjugation, creating a permanent state of inferiority for non-Muslims. Her work has been influential in discussions of Islamic antisemitism, particularly about the legal and social constraints placed on Jewish communities.
Andrew Bostom: In his book "The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism," Bostom compiles a wide range of historical sources and interpretations to argue that antisemitic attitudes were deeply rooted in Islamic theology and law from the beginning. He challenges the notion that Islamic antisemitism is primarily a modern phenomenon influenced by European ideas, suggesting instead that it has been a persistent feature of Islamic civilization.

Incorporating these perspectives into the discussion highlights the diversity of scholarly opinions on Islamic antisemitism. It shows that while Lewis's analysis is influential, it is part of a broader scholarly debate that includes differing views on the origins, nature, and development of antisemitic attitudes within the Islamic world.

Modern-Day Manifestations and the Role of Media

In his later reflections, Lewis focused on the contemporary manifestations of Islamic antisemitism, particularly in the media and political discourse. He observed how antisemitic tropes, such as the depiction of Jews as cunning, deceitful, and evil, had become pervasive in the Middle East. These depictions often mirrored the imagery of Nazi propaganda, suggesting a direct line of influence from European antisemitic ideologies to modern Islamic contexts.

Lewis highlighted the recurrence of blood libel accusations in some Arab media outlets, where Jews were falsely accused of using the blood of non-Jews for religious rituals. This myth, which originated in medieval Christian Europe, had found new life in the contemporary Muslim world, serving as a potent symbol of Jewish malevolence and reinforcing the perception of Jews as a fundamentally evil and dangerous group.

These modern manifestations, Lewis argued, represent the culmination of a long and complex evolution. Traditional Islamic prejudices against Jews have been transformed and intensified by the influence of European antisemitism, the political dynamics of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the ideological agendas of radical Islamist movements. This has led to the emergence of a form of antisemitism that is not only more aggressive and virulent but also deeply entrenched in the cultural and political fabric of the contemporary Muslim world.

Conclusion

Bernard Lewis's analysis of Islamic antisemitism illustrates its evolution from a historical, religious prejudice into a complex, modern phenomenon influenced by European ideologies, political conflicts, and radical Islamist movements. While Lewis's work provides a critical framework for understanding these changes, it has also sparked debate, with critics arguing that his perspective may reflect an Orientalist bias and a pro-Western stance. By engaging with Lewis's insights, alongside contrasting scholarly views, a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of Islamic antisemitism emerges, highlighting the interplay between historical narratives, theological interpretations, and contemporary sociopolitical dynamics.

The ideas in this article are mine, but AI assisted in writing it.

Tim Orr is an Evangelical minister, conference speaker, and interfaith consultant with over 30 years of experience in cross-cultural ministry. He holds six degrees, including a master’s in Islamic studies from the Islamic College in London. Tim taught Religious Studies for 15 years at Indiana University Columbus and is now a Congregations and Polarization Project research associate. He has spoken at universities, including Oxford, and mosques throughout the U.K. His research focuses on American Evangelicalism, Islamic antisemitism, and Islamic feminism, and he has published widely, including three books.